Micronutrients for Viral Infections – Reference Bibliography

This webpage includes a selection of research publications pertaining to micronutrients and their biological roles in immune function. Articles are linked to their original source via Digital Object Identifier (DOI); PubMed Identifier (PMID); or Uniform Resource Locator (URL)

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ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

Vitamin A

Role of fat soluble vitamins A and D in the pathogenesis of influenza: A new perspective. Hindawi International Scholarly Research Notes. 2013 – https://doi.org/10.5402/2013/246737

Vitamin A, immunity, and infection. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 1994; 19(3) – https://doi.org/10.1093/clinids/19.3.489

Vitamin C

Vitamin C supplementation is necessary for patients with coronavirus disease: An ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry finding. J Pharm Biomed Anal. 2021; 196 – https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpba.2021.113927

Possible application of high-dose Vitamin C in the prevention and therapy of Coronavirus infection. J Glob Antimicrob Resist. 2020; 23 – https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jgar.2020.09.025

Overview of the possible role of Vitamin C in management of COVID-19. Pharmacol. Rep. 2020; 71 – https://doi.org/10.1007/s43440-020-00176-1

The long history of vitamin C: From prevention of the common cold to potential aid in the treatment of COVID-19. Front Immunol. 2020 – https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2020.574029

The role of Vitamin C as adjuvant therapy in COVID-19. Cureus. 2020; 12(11) – https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.11779
Pilot trial of high-dose vitamin C in critically ill COVID-19 patients. Annals of Intensive Care. 2021; 11 – https://doi.org/10.1186/s13613-020-00792-3

Beneficial aspects of high dose intravenous vitamin C on patients with COVID-19 pneumonia in severe condition: A retrospective case series study. Annals of Palliative Medicine. 2020 – https://doi.org/10.21037/apm-20-1387
Vitamin C: An adjunctive therapy for respiratory infection, sepsis and COVID-19. Nutrients. 2020; 12(12) – https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12123760

The use of IV Vitamin C for patients with COVID-19: A case series. Expert Rev Anti Infect Thera. 2020; 18(12) – https://doi.org/10.1080/14787210.2020.1794819

The emerging role of Vitamin C in the prevention and treatment of COVID-19. Nutrients. 2020; 12(11) – https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12113286

Vitamin C levels in patients with SARS-CoV-2-associated acute respiratory distress syndrome. Critical Care. 2020; 24 – https://doi.org/10.1186/s13054-020-03249-y

Ascorbate as prophylaxis and therapy for COVID-19 – Update from Shanghai and U.S. medical institutions. Glob Adv Health Med. 2020; 9:2164956120934768 – https://doi.org/10.1177/2164956120934768

Vitamin C as prophylaxis and adjunctive medical treatment for COVID-19? Nutrition. 2020 – https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nut.2020.110948

Intravenous high-dose vitamin C for the treatment of severe COVID-19: Study protocol for a multicentre randomised controlled trial. BMJ Open. 2020 – https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2020-039519

Patients with community acquired pneumonia exhibit depleted vitamin C status and elevated oxidative stress. Nutrients. 2020; 12(5) – https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12051318

Quercetin and vitamin C: An experimental, synergistic therapy for the prevention and treatment of SARS-Cov-2. Frontiers in Immunology. 2020 – https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2020.01451

Intravenous vitamin C for reduction of cytokines storm in acute respiratory distress syndrome. PharmaNutrition. 2020; 12 – https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phanu.2020.100190

Can early and high intravenous dose of vitamin C prevent and treat coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)? Medicine in Drug Discovery. 2020; 5 – https://doi.org/10.1016/j.medidd.2020.100028

Vitamin C may reduce the duration of mechanical ventilation in critically ill patients: A meta-regression analysis. Journal of Intensive Care. 2020; 8(15) – https://doi.org/10.1186/s40560-020-0432-y

Vitamin C can shorten the length of stay in the ICU: A meta-analysis. Nutrients. 2019; 11(4) – https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11040708

Vitamin C and infections. Nutrients. 2017; 9(4) – https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9040339

Extra dose of vitamin C based on a daily supplementation shortens the common cold: A meta-analysis of 9 randomized controlled trials. Biomed Res Int. 2018 – https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/1837634

Intravenous vitamin C as adjunctive therapy for enterovirus/rhinovirus induced acute respiratory distress syndrome. World Journal of Critical Care Medicine. 2017; 6(1) – https://doi.org/10.5492/wjccm.v6.i1.85

The effectiveness of vitamin C in preventing and relieving the symptoms of virus-induced respiratory infections. Journal of Manipulative and Physiological Therapeutics. 1999; 22(8) – https://doi.org/10.1016/S0161-4754(99)70005-9

Vitamin D

Association of Vitamin D Status with SARS-CoV-2 infection or COVID-19 severity: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Advances in Nutrition. 2021 – https://doi.org/10.1093/advances/nmab012

Vitamin D and lung outcomes in elderly COVID-19 patients. Nutrients. 2021; 13(3) – https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13030717

Does the high prevalence of vitamin D deficiency in African Americans contribute to health disparities? Nutrients. 2021; 13(2) – https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13020499

Effectiveness of in-hospital cholecalciferol use on clinical outcomes in comorbid COVID-19 patients: A hypothesis-generating study. Nutrients. 2021; 13(1) – https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13010219

The link between Vitamin D and COVID-19: Distinguishing facts from fiction. J Intern Med. 2021; 289(1) – https://doi.org/10.1111/joim.13158

Association between Vitamin D deficiency and COVID-19 incidence, complications, and mortality in 46 countries: An ecological study. Health Security, 2020 – https://doi.org/10.1089/hs.2020.0137

Vitamin D: A review and proposed evidence prevention in COVID-19. Vitamins and Minerals. 2020; 9:S8 – https://doi.org/10.23937/2469-567X/1510064

The importance of Vitamin D metabolism as a potential prophylactic, immunoregulatory and neuroprotective treatment for COVID-19. Journal of Translational Medicine. 2020; 18 – https://doi.org/10.1186/s12967-020-02488-5

The benefits of Vitamin D supplementation for athletes: Better performance and reduced risk of COVID-19. Nutrients. 2020; 12(12) – https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12123741

Vitamin D3 as potential treatment adjuncts for COVID-19. Nutrients. 2020; 12(11) – https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12113512

Vitamin D supplementation associated to better survival in hospitalized frail elderly COVID-19 patients: The GERIA-COVID Quasi-Experimental Study. Nutrients. 2020; 12(11) – https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12113377

Evidence regarding Vitamin D and risk of COVID-19 and its severity. Nutrients. 2020; 12(11) – https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12113361

Role of Vitamin D in preventing of COVID-19 infection, progression and severity. J Infect Public Health. 2020; 13(10) – https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiph.2020.06.021

Does serum vitamin D level affect COVID-19 infection and its severity? A case-control study. Journal of the American College of Nutrition. 2020 – https://doi.org/10.1080/07315724.2020.1826005

Vitamin D in prevention and treatment of COVID-19: Current perspective and future prospects. Journal of the American College of Nutrition. 2020 – https://doi.org/10.1080/07315724.2020.1806758

Effect of calcifediol treatment and best available therapy versus best available therapy on intensive care unit admission and mortality among patients hospitalized from COVID-19: A pilot randomized clinical study. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2020; 203:105751 – https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105751

Immune modulatory effects of Vitamin D on viral infections. Nutrients. 2020; 12(9): 2879 – https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12092879

Impact of Vitamin D deficiency on COVID-19 – A prospective analysis from the CovILD Registry. Nutrients. 2020; 12(9): 2775 – https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12092775

Vitamin D deficiency and outcome of COVID-19 patients. Nutrients. 2020; 12(9): 2757 – https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12092757

Vitamin D insufficiency and deficiency and mortality from respiratory diseases in a cohort of older adults: Potential from limiting the death toll during and beyond the COVID-19 pandemic? Nutrients. 2020; 12(8) – https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12082488

Vitamin D deficiency and co-morbidities in COVID-19 patients: A fatal relationship? NFS Journal. 2020; 20 – https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.nfs.2020.06.001

Immunologic effects of vitamin D on human health and disease. Nutrients. 2020; 12(7) – https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12072097

Perspective: Improving vitamin D status in the management of COVID-19. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2020; 74 – https://doi.org/10.1038/s41430-020-0661-0

Vitamin D and COVID-19: Do deficient risk a poorer outcome? Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2020; 8(7) – https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-8587(20)30183-2

Vitamin D deficiency and the COVID-19 pandemic. J Glob Antimicrob Resist. 2020; 22 – https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jgar.2020.05.006

The role of Vitamin D in the prevention of coronavirus disease 2019 infection and mortality. Aging Clin Exp Res. 2020 – https://doi.org/10.1007/s40520-020-01570-8

25-Hydroxyvitamin D concentrations are lower in patients with positive PCR for SARS-CoV-2.
Nutrients. 2020; 12(5) – https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12051359

Evidence supports a causal model for vitamin D in COVID-19 outcomes. (Epub ahead of print) MedRxiv. 2020 – https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.05.01.20087965

Vitamin D insufficiency is prevalent in severe COVID-19. (Epub ahead of print) MedRxiv. 2020 – https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.04.24.20075838

Does vitamin D status impact mortality from SARS-CoV-2 infection? Medicine in Drug Discovery. 2020; 6 – https://doi.org/10.1016/j.medidd.2020.100041

The role of vitamin D in the prevention of coronavirus disease 2019 infection and mortality. Infectious Diseases. 2020 – https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-21211/v1

Evidence that vitamin D supplementation could reduce risk of influenza and COVID-19 infections and deaths. Nutrients. 2020; 12(4) – https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12040988

The role of vitamin D in increasing circulating T regulatory cell numbers and modulating T regulatory cell phenotypes in patients with inflammatory disease or in healthy volunteers: a systematic review. PLoS One. 2019; 14(9) – https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0222313

Vitamin D supplementation to prevent acute respiratory tract infections: Systematic review and meta-analysis of individual participant data. BMJ. 2017; 356 – https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.i6583

Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D and the incidence of acute viral respiratory tract infections in healthy adults. PLoS One. 2010; 5(6) – https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0011088

Vitamin D for treatment and prevention of infectious diseases: A systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Endocrine Practice. 2009; 15(5) – https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2855046/

Vitamin K

Reduced Vitamin K status as a potentially modifiable risk factor of severe COVID-19. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2020; ciaa1258 – https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciaa1258

Glutathione (GSH)

Endogenous deficiency of glutathione as the most likely cause of serious manifestations and death in COVID-10 patients. ACS Infect Dis. 2020; 6(7): 1558-1562 – https://doi.org/10.1021/acsinfecdis.0c00288

Magnesium

Magnesium in infectious diseases in older people. Nutrients. 2021; 13(1) – https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13010180

Combating COVID-19 and building immune resilience: A potential role for magnesium nutrition? Journal of American College of Nutrition. 2020 – https://doi.org/10.1080/07315724.2020.1785971

Melatonin

Evaluation of the efficacy and safety of melatonin in moderately ill patients with COVID-19: A structured summary of a study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. NTrials. 2020; 21(1) – https://doi.org/10.1186/s13063-020-04737-w

Melatonin potentials against viral infections including COVID-19: Current evidence and new findings. Virus Res. 2020; 287 – https://doi.org/10.1016/j.virusres.2020.198108

Is melatonin deficiency a unifying pathomechanism of high risk patients with COVID-19? Life Sci. 2020; 256 – https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lfs.2020.117902

Melatonin potentials against viral infections including COVID-19: Current evidence and new findings. Viral Res. 2020; 287 – https://doi.org/10.1016/j.virusres.2020.198108

N-acetylcysteine (NAC)

N-acetylcysteine (NAC) and hydrogen sulfide in Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19). Antioxidants & Redox Signaling. 2021 – https://doi.org/10.1089/ars.2020.8247

N-Acetylcysteine: A potential therapeutic agent for SARS-CoV-2. Med Hypotheses. 2020; 143 – https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2020.109862

Therapeutic blockage of inflammation in severe COVID-19 infection with intravenous N-acetylcysteine. Clinical Immunology. 2020; 219:108544 – https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clim.2020.108544

N-acetylcysteine as a potential treatment for novel coronavirus disease 2019. Future Microbiology. 2020 (Epub ahead of print) – https://doi.org/10.2217/fmb-2020-0074

Selenium

Selenium deficiency is associated with mortality risk from COVID-19. Nutrients. 2020; 12(7) – https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12072098Selenium supplementation in the prevention of coronavirus infections (COVID-19). Med Hypotheses. 2020; 143 – https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2020.109878

Selenium deficiency is associated with mortality risk from COVID-19. Nutrients. 2020; 12(7) – https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12072098

Selenium supplementation in the prevention of coronavirus infections (COVID-19). Med Hypotheses. 2020; 143 – https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2020.109878

Association between regional selenium status and reported outcome of COVID-19 cases in China. Am J Clin Nutr. 2020 – https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/nqaa095

The role of selenium in inflammation and immunity: From molecular mechanisms to therapeutic opportunities. Antioxidants & Redox Signaling. 2011; 16(7) – https://doi.org/10.1089/ars.2011.4145

The influence of selenium on immune responses. Molecular Nutrition & Food Research. 2008; 52(11) – https://doi.org/10.1002/mnfr.200700330

Zinc

Low zinc levels at admission associates with poor clinical outcomes in SARS-CoV-2 Infection. Nutrients. 2021; 13(2) – https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13020562

COVID-19: Poor outcomes in patients with zinc deficiency. Int J Infect Dis. 2020; 100 – https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2020.09.014

COVID-19 pandemic: Can maintaining optimal zinc balance enhance host resistance? Tohoku J Exp Med. 2020; 251(3) – https://doi.org/10.1620/tjem.251.175

Can Zn be a critical element in COVID-19 treatment? [Epub ahead of print] Biol Trace Elem Res. 2020 – https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-020-02194-9
Hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin plus zinc vs hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin alone: Outcomes in hospitalized COVID-19 patients. [Epub ahead of print] MedRxiv. 2020 – https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.05.02.20080036
Improving the efficacy of chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine against SARS-CoV-2 may require zinc additives: A better synergy for future COVID-19 clinical trials. Le Infezioni in Medicina. 2020; 2 – https://www.infezmed.it/media/journal/Vol_28_2_2020_9.pdf

Zinc in infection and inflammation. Nutrients. 2017; 9(6) – https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9060624

Serum zinc and pneumonia in nursing home elderly. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2007; 86(4) – https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/86.4.1167

Zinc and immune function: The biological basis of altered resistance to infection. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 1998; 68(2) – https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/68.2.447S

Micronutrients and Nutrition

Trace minerals, vitamins and nutraceuticals in prevention and treatment of COVID-19. Journal of Dietary Supplements. 2021 – https://doi.org/10.1080/19390211.2021.1890662

Effect of high-dose zinc and ascorbic acid supplementation vs usual care on symptom length and reduction among ambulatory patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection: The COVID A to Z Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA Netw Open. 2021; 4(2) – https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.0369

Could nutritional supplements act as therapeutic adjuvants in COVID-19? Ital J Pediatr. 2021; 47(1) – https://doi.org/10.1186/s13052-021-00990-0

Magnesium and vitamin D deficiency as a potential cause of immune dysfunction, cytokine storm an disseminated intravascular coagulation in COVID-19 patients. Mo Med. 2021; 118(1) – https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7861592/

Micronutrients, phytochemicals and Mediterranean diet: A potential protective role against COVID-19 through modulation of PAF actions and metabolism. Nutrients. 2021; 13(2) – https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13020462

SARS-CoV-2: Influence of phosphate and magnesium, moderated by Vitamin D, on energy (ATP) metabolism and on severity of COVID-19. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2021; 320(1) – https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpendo.00474.2020

Immune-boosting role of Vitamins D, C, E, zinc, selenium and omega-3 fatty acids: Could they help against COVID-19? Maturitas, 2021;143 – https://doi.org/10.1016/j.maturitas.2020.08.003

Effect of micronutrient supplements on influenza and other respiratory tract infections among adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ Glob Health. 2021; 6(1): 3003176 – https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2020-003176

Effective immune functions of micronutrients against SARS-CoV-2. Nutrients. 2020; 12(10) – https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12102992

Nutritional status of patients with COVID-19. Int J Infect Dis. 2020; 100 – https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2020.08.018

Mini-review on the roles of vitamin C, vitamin D, and selenium in the immune against COVID-19. Molecules. 2020; 25(22) – https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25225346

A review of micronutrients and the immune system-working in harmony to reduce the risk of Infection. Nutrients. 2020; 12(1) – https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12010236

Could Vitamins help in the fight against COVID-19? Nutrients. 2020; 12(9) – https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12092550

Current state of evidence: Influence of nutritional and nutrigenetic factors on immunity in the COVID-19 pandemic framework. Nutrients. 2020; 12(9) – https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12092738

Early nutritional interventions with Zinc, Selenium and Vitamin D for raising anti-viral resistance against progressive COVID-19. Nutrients. 2020; 12(8) – https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12082358

Micronutrient status of COVID-19 patients: A critical consideration. Crit Care. 2020; 24(1) – https://doi.org/10.1186/s13054-020-03085-0

Nutritional recommendations for CoVID-19 quarantine. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2020; 74(6) – https://doi.org/10.1038/s41430-020-0635-2

Nutrition, immunity and COVID-19. BMJ Nutrition, Prevention & Health. 2020 – https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjnph-2020-000085

Evidence supporting a phased immuno-physiological approach to COVID-19 from prevention through recovery. IMCJ. 2020; 19(1) – (ISSN#1945-7081) https://athmjournal.com/covid19/wp-content/uploads/sites/4/2020/05/imcj-19-08.pdf

Impact of vitamins A, B, C, D, and E supplementation on improvement and mortality rate in ICU patients with coronavirus-19: a structured summary of a study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. Trials. 2020; 21(1) – https://doi.org/10.1186/s13063-020-04547-0

Diet supplementation, probiotics, and nutraceuticals in SARS-CoV-2 infection: A scoping review. Nutrients. 2020; 12(6) – https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12061718

Strengthening the immune system and reducing inflammation and oxidative stress through diet and nutrition: Considerations during the COVID-19 crisis. Nutrients. 2020; 12(6) – https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12061562

The impact of nutrition on COVID-19 susceptibility and long-term consequences. Brain Behav Immun.2020; 87 – https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2020.04.040

Nutrition, immunity and COVID-19. BMJ Nutrition, Prevention & Health. 2020 – http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjnph-2020-000085

What is the role of supplementation with ascorbic acid, zinc, vitamin D, or N-acetylcysteine for prevention or treatment of COVID-19? [Epub ahead of print] Cleve Clin J Med. 2020 – https://doi.org/10.3949/ccjm.87a.ccc046

Strengthening the immune system and reducing inflammation and oxidative stress through diet and nutrition: Considerations during the COVID-19 crisis. Nutrients. 2020; 12(6) – https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12061562

COVID-19: The inflammation link and the role of nutrition in potential mitigation. Nutrients. 2020; 12(5) – https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12051466
Impact of nutrition and diet on COVID-19 infection and implications for kidney health and kidney disease management. Journal of Renal Nutrition. 2020; 30(3) – https://dx.doi.org/10.1053%2Fj.jrn.2020.03.006
Optimal nutritional status for a well-functioning immune system is an important factor to protect against viral infections. Nutrients. 2020; 12(4) – https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12041181
Enhancing immunity in viral infections, with special emphasis on COVID-19: A review. Diabetes & Metabolic Syndrome. 2020; 14(4) – https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsx.2020.04.015

Potential interventions for novel coronavirus in China: A systematic review. Journal of Medical Virology. 2020; 92(5) – https://doi.org/10.1002/jmv.25707

Early nutritional supplementation in non-critically ill patients hospitalized for the 2019 novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19): Rationale and feasibility of a shared pragmatic protocol. Nutrition. 2020 – https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nut.2020.110835

Nutrition support in the time of SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19). Nutrition. 2020 – https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nut.2020.110834

Medical nutrition therapy for critically ill patients with COVID-19. European Review for Medical and Pharmacological Sciences.2020; 24(7) – https://doi.org/10.26355/eurrev_202004_20874

Optimal nutritional status for a well-functioning immune system is an important factor to protect against viral infections. Nutrients. 2020; 12(4) – https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12041181

Nutritional modulation of immune function: Analysis of evidence, mechanisms, and clinical relevance. Frontiers in Immunology. 2019 – https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2018.03160

DISCLAIMER OF INFORMATION & CONTENT

This website contains information pertaining to nutritional intervention and the use of non-patentable molecules for improving outcomes in various medical conditions. The information provided may not reflect the current standard(s) of care in your jurisdiction, and is not intended to be a substitute for medical advice from a licensed physician or other qualified health care professional.

Please consult your regional public health authority for specific guidelines and resources pertaining to the prevention of SARS-CoV-2 / COVID-19